Last
Updated: February 2, 2004
| INDEX 1) Introduction |
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The country with the most "aggressive" space programme, at this
time, is undoubtely China. It has launched its first Dong Fang Hong
("east is red") satellite in 1970 and after conducting a successful but
low profile programme of meteorological, telecommunication, Earth
observation and microgravity research satellites, it has decided to
debut soon in two high visibility and high prestige fields: human
spaceflight and deep space probes. It is quite ironic to note that the
father of Chinese astronautics, Tsien Hsue-shen,
or Qian Xuesen, was one of the founding members of JPL and that he was
expelled from the US during the McCarthy witchhunt for being a suspect
Communist.
The piloted spaceflight programme is already known, prototype
spaceships, called Shenzhou
(heavenly cart) having already flown in space.
China started studying deep space probes as far as 1963, when a
small team of engineers started to collect informations on US space
projects in order to help define a national space programme. The
interest of this group was mostly focused on "applicational" satellites
like Tiros (meteorology), Discoverer/CORONA
(a recoverable spy satellite), Transit (navigation), Echo, Telstar and
Syncom (telecommunications). Also studied were scientific satellites
like the Canadian Alouette or the British Ariel, piloted spacecraft
like
Mercury and Gemini and the JPL Ranger lunar probes. Probably as a
result
of these studies, two papers were published in 1964 in Chinese techical
journals concerning the design of Moon crasher probes. It is possible
that a lunar probe project was included in the very ambitious early
Chinese space program, managed in the difficult times of the cultural
revolution under defence minister Lin Biao which also included the tiny
Shuguang (dawn) manned capsule. After Lin Biao's death in a misterious
air accident in the early 1970s, the program was redirected toward more
useful applications, and party secretary Deng Xiao-Ping announced "China does not need to go to the Moon in
order to modernize".
An ambitious Chinese national space plan which included piloted
mission in addition to a "Skylab, space surveyors and scientific and
application satellites'' within eight years was described in early 1978
by Fang Wi, China's deputy prime minister for science and technology.
To the best of this author's knowledge this was the first Chinese
public announcement concerning deep space probes.
In March of 1986 the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology
started its "Project 863" aimed at developing technological innovation
in several fields from biotechnologies to robotics. For what concerns
space technologies, one of the most important programmes developed
under
"Project 863" deals with lunar exploration.
A first lunar program was proposed in 1993 and then in 1995 by CALT
(Chinese Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology) but it was not
implemented The existence of one such program was revealed in January
of
1995 when Jiang Jingshan, responsible for space planning of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences announced that the newly proposed five years plan
included the development of non defined planetary missions, including a
lunar probe to be launched "around
2000", a plan later confirmed by Ma Xingrui, Chinese Academy of
Space Technology vice president who stated in March of 1998: "We will launch a small lunar probe when
possible".
A workshop on lunar probe design was organized in 1997 by CALT and
its topics possibly covered navigation and orbital design. Two more
simposia were held at Tsinghua university in May 2000 and January 2001,
during which a plan has been worked out that was presented for approval
to the central Chinese government after the recent Communist Party
congress.
According to Chinese sources it will take at least 20 years to
complete the robotic part of the program.
It appears that the program has received the official go ahead from the
Chinese government on February 28, 2003. The entire program is called "Chang'e Program" after the
character flying to the Moon in the Huai
Nan Zi fairy tale of the fourth-third century b.C.
Keeping on the tradition inaugurated by the former Soviet Union,
several details of the missions remain vague: what will be the planned
launcher, what the objectives and characteristics of the probe will be,
which questions are to be answered, etc.
To get a clearer picture I am sifting since a couple of years Chinese technical and refereed publications available on the Internet in order to answer at least partially to the above questions. This search has located until now more than a hundred papers, abstracts and citations (analyzed in detail below) and has provided a clearer view of Chinese objectives and capabilities.
China has a formidable arsenal of space launchers, several of which
can be used for lunar missions.
The three staged CZ-2C/CTS
uses the first two stages of the piloted CZ-2F mated to a third solid
fueled stage. Depending on the launch site, Xichang or Jiuquan, this
rocket can launch 700 or 800 kg to escape speed. The launcher was first
used to launch the two scientific Double Star satellites, built in
cooperation with ESA.
The most powerful family of Chinese launchers, and the most probable
choice for a lunar probe, is the CZ-3 family, launched from Xichang.
The basic CZ-3,
having a liquid oxygen-liquid hydrogen cryogenic third stage, can
launch some 1,000 kg to the Moon, analogous to the US Surveyor probes of the Sixties. CZ-3A, a
stretched CZ-3 can launch up to 1,700 kg to the Moon. CZ-3B is
currently
the most powerful Chinese launcher. It consists of a CZ-3A mated to
four
liquid fueled boosters and can launch up to 3,400 kg to the Moon. The
unflown CZ-3C, a CZ-3B with only two boosters, can launch up to 2,400
kg
of payload to the Moon. A clear indication that the CZ-3 family will be
used for the first lunar probe is the discussion of its lunar transfer
orbit launch accuracy estimates.
More into the future, the 2000-2005 Five Years Space Plan reportedly includes the development of a new launcher, designated CZ-5. The CZ-5 will be a family of modular rockets using stages with diameters of 5, 3.25 and 2.25 meters. The heaviest version will use an hydrocarbon first stage and cryogenic upper stages and will be able to carry up to 25 tons into Low Earth Orbit or 13 tons into Geostationary Transfer Orbit. CZ-5 will be able to launch 4.4, 8.1 or up to 10.6 tons to the Moon, depending on the version and could also provide the basis for a Chinese "Saturn-V" if and when it decides to put humans on the Moon.
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Chinese Launchers. Left to right: CZ-4, CZ-3C, CZ-3B, CZ-3A, CZ-5 "Heavy", CZ-2F, CZ-2E, CZ-2C (Image CNSA) |
Very few informations have been published on the early Chinese lunar
probes, their project and their mission.
The first orbiter will probably be based on the DFH-3 communication
satellite bus, well tested in geostationary orbit. A similar orbiter
will provide a scientific payload pointing accuracy comparable to the
European SMART-1.
The 130.4 kg payload of this first probe was detailed in
July 2003 by Ye Shuhua from the Shanghai
Astronomical
Observatory at the 25th Annual Congress of
the
International Astronomical Union in Sydney. It will include:
A mechanical prototype of the instrument suite for the first Chinese
orbiter has entered preliminary tests on 15 December 2003. More
advanced tests will confirm the compatibility between the instruments
and that they can withstand the launch environment and the space
environment.
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The Chinese DFH-3 communication satellite bus may be
used for the first lunar orbiter mission sometimes before 2005 (image Copyright Paolo Ulivi) |
Other proposals have however been put forward. One, elaborated by
researchers of the prestigious Tsinghua university, is called LunarNet
and envisages a polar orbiter equipped with no less than sixteen 28 kg
landers to be released in equally spaced areas on two mutually
perpendicular orbital planes. The landing system, probably using
airbags, would ensure surviving a
landing at speeds between 12 and 22 m/s. Each lander will carry a
camera, temperature sensors, cosmic ray detectors, a penetrometer, an
instrument for the measurement of soil magnetic properties and other
instruments. The researchers also propose an ingenious system to
obviate
to the lack of a Chinese deep space network. A relay satellite is to
orbit the Earth on an orbit with apogee near the Moon and perigee at
some 6,000 km, collecting data from the orbiter and landers during its
frequent lunar fly-bies and relaying them to Earth at perigee. This
system, however does not simplify the uplink of commands from Earth to
the probes.
Another proposal is designated Moon Rabbit after a traditional Chinese
tale. This 330 kg probe will cost as little as 30 million dollars and
will be launched on a geostationary transfer orbit from the Xichang
space center. Insertion into a lunar transfer orbit will be carried out
on the following day using the on board bipropellant engine. At the
time
of the third apogee the probe will be inserted in a 100 to 200 km high
lunar orbit where it will split into two components. The first,
apparently based on the Double Star scientific satellites, will carry
out an orbital mission, using a CCD camera, an infrared camera, a radar
altimeter and a radiometer. The second will head for a lunar landing.
This lander, braked by a solid propellant engine, will carry only a
camera and will test optimal control algorithms discussed in some
length
in Chinese literature. Once on the surface the lander will release a 60
sq. meters Chinese flag.
Several other studies of lunar missions have been apparently recently
carried out in China: a small spin stabilized orbiter, an ion propelled
300 kg probe, designed under the aegis of Project 863, a 600 kg lander.
Moreover, studies have been carried out on solar sails and planetary
penetrators. Experiments for the latter have been carried out using
projectiles of steel, titanium and tungsten, launched at very high
speed
against concrete targets.
A four-tons lunar sample returner is also under study.
As briefly mentioned, one of the problems China will have to face
when and if it will decide on a lunar exploration programme is that of
communicating with deep space probes.
A particular role may be that of FAST (Five hundred meters Aperture
Spherical Telescope), a large radiotelescope similar but larger than
the
one at Arecibo, that will be built in a natural recess in the Guizhou
region. According to the Chinese themselves, its tasks will include
tracking deep space vehicles. This instrument will cost up to 1 billion
dollars.
Sources also hint at the use of the Kiribati and Namibia Chinese
tracking stations and even at the use of the three "Yuanwang" (Long View) tracking
ships, used to support human missions.
As mentioned, the third and fourth phase of the lunar exploration
programme envisage the use of rovers and other robots, and this appears
to be a field of extreme interest for the Chinese, with several papers
published every year in refereed journals. Moreover, a rover prototype
has been put on show by the Tsinghua university at the beginning of
2001. From a description made by associate professor Zhu Ji Hong, it
appears very similar to NASA Sojourner Mars rover: it has six wheels
powered by six independent motors and a rocker bogie system quite
similar to that of Sojourner, said to be able to avoid obstacles up to
18 cm high. The rover is powered by solar panels, has four floodlights
in front and a three dimensional camera to take
navigation pictures and panoramas to be relayed to Earth.
Finally, the rover is equipped by a small robotic arm to collect soil
samples. This kind of rover does not appear to be able to survive
for more than a single (lunar) day on the Moon's surface.
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The lunar rover prototype built by Tsinghua and recently put on show in Beijing. (Beijing Youth) |
A study by the same university has identified the robotic
technologies required to built a robot designed to collect soil samples
for a sample return mission. A control system prototype for deep space
robotic arms has been studied and implemented using industrial robots
and a virtual reality system. According to a leading Chinese robotic
scientist, Sun Zenqi, these robots could investigate future landing
areas, deploy scientific instruments, collect samples and take pictures
of the soil.
The Chinese lunar missions will undoubtedly be a further proof of
technical maturity, but little has been said this far about their
scientific objectives. In this regard Wu Ji, the deputy director of the
Chinese Academy of Sciences' Center for Space Science and Applied
Research has recently declared that Chinese Moon probes will aim at
questions not addressed by previous missions, stressing the importance
of doing "something unique", while other sources states that Chinese
probes will study the geological evolution of the lunar soil, its
interactions with the solar wind and will analyze its chemical
composition.
The first decade of the new century may also see another Solar
System exploration debutante: India.
Beside being the two most populous countries of the world, China
and India are both nuclear powers and have been at war in 1962 over the
possession of a part of Kashmir. For all of these reasons it has
recently been suggested by Indian space officials that the second
decade
of the new millennium might see a second race to the Moon, this time
between India and China. Meanwhile, a scenario well exercised during
the
cold war is being repeated: Chinese scientists are accusing their
Indian
colleagues of "reinventing the wheel", of understating the costs of a
lunar mission and of putting the priorities of their space plan at
second place. Just like the Eighties, when Soviet scientists were very
critical to the US Space Shuttle, in order to criticize their own
shuttle programme, these critics may in fact be addressed to the
Chinese
lunar programme itself.
A mission to Mars?
Recurrent among the recent rumours of Chinese planetary missions is
that of a Mars mission.In fact, Chinese space officials announced as
early as 1992 that China was to collaborate with Russia on its
Mars-94/-96 program with the aim to detect signs of life on the planet.
However, on the only spacecraft of that program actually launched,
Mars-8, there appears to have been no instrument built in China so that
its role, if any, was to have been very small.
Other rumors of Chinese Mars missions have surfaced from time to time,
until May 2002, when a prototype Mars rover was unveiled at the China
Sci-Tech Week held in Beijing. The "Mars Explorer" rover was said to be
based on NASA's Mars Exploratory Rovers to be launched in 2003, having
six wheels, a square-shaped body and a sensor "head" weighting around
20
kg. Each of its six wheels is powered by two independent motors for
redundancy. Between the rover body and wheels is a mechanical arm, able
to crush stones and perform chemical analyses.
Unfortunately I have not been able, this far, to find a picture of this
rover.
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Cui Pingyuan, the director of
the Deep Space Exploration Center of the Harbin Institute of Technology
answers questions from the Chinese TV during the "5th Chinese
international exibition of space technology, remote sensing, geographic
information system and global positioning system" held in Beijing in
November 2003. Behind him is a model of a Chinese Mars orbiter. More
images from the exibition can be found at the Deep
Space Exploration Center
website |
Below are published details of all of the papers on lunar and
planetary missions I have been able to locate in the Chinese technical
literature on-line (see the Resource section).
Arabic numbers are used for the papers for which I have been able to
find at least an abstract, Roman numbers are used for papers for which
I
have not been able to locate anything else but the title. The details
follow hereafter, with a short comment on each where possible. I think
I
am not violating any copyright by putting the original abstracts here.
Please note that I am not able
to read Chinese. For a few papers for which I could not find an English
title and abstract, I have used online translators such as Altavista's Babel Fish
and Systran.
1964
i) The problem of the design of the orbit of a probe to impact
the Moon, Journal of the Nanjing University, 1964, Vol.
8,
No. 3, pp. 367-375
ii) The problem of the hit point distribution on the lunar
surface
for an impacting probe, Journal of the Nanjing University,
1964,
Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 481-492
1994
iii) Ruan Xiaogang, Applied Research in a Neurocontrol Scheme for Lunar Soft Landing, Nanjing Aerospace University Journal, No. 6, Vol. 26, 1994
1996
iv) Computational method for assigning the condition for directly reaching the Moon's orbit, Chinese Space Science and Technology, 1996, No. 3, pp. 17-21
1997
1) Xiaotao Wu, Zhuang Jun, Sun Zengqi, Zhang Zhenmin, Design
and Implementation of a Telerobotic System with Large Time Delay,Proceedings
of International Symposium on Artificial Intelligence, Robotics and
Automation in Space(i-SAIRAS'97), pp. 321-324, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract: This paper introduces a telerobotic system. In this
system, a delay-compensating, 3-D stereo-graphic simulator is
implemented in SGI ONYX/4 Re2 with SPACE MAOUSE, HMD devices, Sirius
Video. Programs written in Dual Robot System Simulation Language
(DRSSL)
can be used to control the simulating robot in graphical environment.
The command sequences are generated at the same time with the movement
of the simulating robot and are sent to the real robot after the
simulating time delay. The images gotten from the camera are sent back
to make overlapping to the simulating robot. Virtual reality technology
and shared control are supported in this system. Some basic tasks are
accomplished by controlling PUMA560 robot.
Comment: This article (in English), authored by Sun Zengqi
himself together with other people of the Tsinghua (Quinhua)
university,
deals with a prototype system for controlling long delay (i.e. far
away)
robotic manipulators. The system uses a simulated manipulator to test
in
real time the manoeuvres that the real manipulator will do after some
time delay due to its remoteness from the controller. This prototype
system uses industrial robots and virtual reality for implementation.
It
is possible that this research is somewhat related to the study
reportedly completed by the Tsinghua university on the robotics
involved
in a lunar sample return mission similar to the Soviet E-8-5.
v) Design of the trajectory of a lunar impacting probe under many
constrains, Chinese Space Science and Technology, 1997, Vol.
17, No. 2, pp. 1-7
vi) The characteristics of a lunar perpendicular trajectory and
its approximate solution, Journal of the National University of
Defense Technology, 1997, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 1-8
vii) Flight track and navigation to the Moon, CAST space
launch systems fourth academic seminar. Guizhou Zunyi, 1997.
viii) Yang Weilian, Lunar satellite
transfer orbit research, Spacecraft project [?], 1997 No.
22 pp. 19-33
1998
2) Liu Lin, Wang Jia-song, An Analytic Solution of the
Orbital Variation of Lunar Satellites , Acta Astronomica
Sinica, Vol. 39, No.1, 1998.
English translation published in: Chinese
Astronomy and Astrophysics, Vol. 22, No. 3, 1998
Abstract: English abstract is Copyright of Elsevier Science B.
V. You
can see it on-line at the NASA Astrophysics Data Service.
Comment: This is a rather technical paper on celestial
mechanics,
dealing with the orbital perturbations of a Moon centered orbit. It
includes a practical example of how the evolution of the 1000 km high
orbit of a lunar satellite can be predicted to the accuracy of 35
meters
over a half week.
3) Ruan Xiaogang, A Nonlinear Neurocontrol Scheme for Lunar
Soft Landing, Journal of Astronautics, No. 1 Vol.9 1998
Abstract: A neurocontrol scheme for lunar soft landing is
proposed in this paper,which combines nonlinear dynamic inversion with
optimal state
feedback.The scheme mainly consists of two parts.First,the nonlinear
dynamic inversion of the controlled object is modeled with an
artificial
neural
network by means of its ability to learn to approximate any
functions,and therefore,the controlled object is linearized by the
neural inversion
model.Secondly,based on the linearized system another artificial neural
network is used as a controller to realize certain optimal state
feedback
controllaw.Finally,the effectiveness of the scheme described in this
paper is investigated by computer simulation.The simulation results are
encouraging and show that neurocomputation could play important role in
control of the future spaceships.
Comment: This paper deals with the feasibilty of a complex
neural
system to control the powered landing of a lunar probe. Ruan Xiaogang
is
the author of another paper on the same subject, published in 1994 and
referred above as number iii.
4) Orbital Design of Vertical Hitting Moon Probe,
Chinese Space Science and Technology, Vol. 18, No. 2, 1998, pp. 161-167
Abstract (my interpretation of a translation by Altavista's Babel Fish): Discusses
the probe's orbit from the low circular Earth orbit, the escape from it
after one revolution, the velocity increment needed to reach the Moon's
orbit and the orbit design to hit the Moon.
Comment: I found the Chinese only abstract for this paper in the
Academic Periodical Abstracts of China Journal issue 4, 1999. The above
abstract is my best attempt to make sense of the Babel Fish
translation.
This paper could be related to the one listed below as number 15.
5) Yan Hui, Wu Hongxin, Lunar Trajectories and
Tracking Arcs, Journal of Astronautics, No. 4 Vol.9 1998
Abstract: The paper involves how to establish lunar trajectorjes
and their relations with tracking arcs.Direct transfers and phasing
loop
transfers are researched for lunar trajectories,and lunar orbits
satisfied with the requirements can be obtained by iterations in
B-plane.It shows the phasing loop transfers are better than the direct
transfers in the tracking and guidance.
Comment: this article deals with the advantages of using a
phasing orbit approach for reaching the Moon. This approach, first used
by the Japanese Hiten spacecraft, uses multiple very eccentric Earth
orbits before intersecting the Moon. The article includes a practical
example of a probe using a 200 km high Earth parking orbit having an
inclination of 43 degrees, which is the typical inclination for
spacecraft launched out of the Jiuquan cosmodrome (including the
Shenzhou prototypes). Xichang would be better as a launch base for a
lunar probe, as it is closer to the equator, but Jiuquan would be the
better choice for security and secrecy purposes. The articles also
deals
with the visibility of the probe during the translunar flight for
tracking purposes.
ix) Lunar probe imperative, Missile and Space
Vehicles,
1998, No. 1
x) The temperature rises once again on the lunar probe, Astronautics,
1998 No. 2
xi) Deep space communication network technology development.
Journal of Flight Vehicle Observation and Control, 1998, Vol. 17 No. 4,
pp.74-89
xii) Lunar probe ??? research plan, Proceedings of the
eight national workshop of the academy of space and ?? control
technology, pp. 119-123
xiii) Qian
Jinwu, Gu Jianfeng, He Yongyi, Su Jianliang Mars rover research and present
development situation, Robot, 1998, pp. 290-293
1999
6) Long Lehao, LM-3A Launch Vehicle Series,
Missiles and Space Vehicles, No.3 1999
Abstract: CZ-3A launch vehicle series is a large rocket group,
which consists of CZ-3A,its evolution rockets, CZ-3B and CZ-3C.
It
is mainly used to launch GTO payload. The LEO payload, SSO payload as
well as payloads flying to the moon and Mars can also be
launched.
It is the rocket series with the largest carrying capacity in China at
present and the main large commercial rocket series to 21st century.
Comment: this article is most interesting because it reveals
details of the launcher the Chinese could use to launch a spacecraft to
the Moon or to the planets. It publishes escape performance plots for
three members of the CZ-3 family: CZ-3A (stretched CZ-3), CZ-3B (CZ-3A
with four liquid fuel boosters) and CZ-3C (CZ-3A with two liquid fuel
boosters).
Some explanation is needed before trying to understand these graphics:
in abscissa you will find the C3 quantity, measured in (km/s)^2 which
may not sound familiar, unless you know something of interplanetary
mission design.
This quantity measures the square of the hyperbolic excess speed, id
est the square of the difference between the heliocentric probe speed
at
injection and the heliocentric Earth speed. For Mars trajectories, C3
can be as low as 10 (km/s)^2 in case of "great opposition" launch
windows (as in 2003), while for Venus, C3 is between 9 and 12 (km/s)^2.
For non escape orbits, such as lunar transfer orbits, C3 is defined as:
C3=-mu/a,
where mu=398600 km^3/s^2 and a is the orbit semimajor
axis (in km). Thus, C3 for lunar missions is between -1.7 and -2
(km/s)^2. For L1 Lagrangian point missions (such as SOHO), C3=-0.6
(km/s)^2.
Alas, the article by Long Lehao does not publish payload capacities for
C3<0 (km/s)^2, but this can be easily imagined by backtracking the
graphs.
Finally, here are the graphics, redrawn to fit the page and translated
(you are absolutely free to use them, but please let me know if you do
so).
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Payload figures for the three aforementioned versions of the CZ-3
launcher were confirmed by a short note in the March 2002 issue of Aerospace China
magazine where they are stated as:
CZ-3A: 1,600 kg
CZ-3B: 3,300 kg
CZ-3C: 2,400 kg
7) Tan Zhengming, Wu Jiang, Wang Xiaohui, Wang Xin, Hard
Landing Impact of Planet Probe, Missiles and Space Vehicles,
No.4
1999
Abstract: The exploration of the planets and their satellites
within the solar system is one of the important fields in space science
and aerospace technology.Since the late half of this century,
penetrators have been considered as landers on these bodies.In order to
solve those problems such as dynamic strength of structures,ballistic
stability of penetrators and impact resistance of elements the
ballistic
tests and theoretical analyses are needed.
China has made great efforts for the modernization of science and
technolgy.It is believed that more attention to hard landing on planets
will be paid by our country.
Comment: this article deals with planetary penetrators, hard
landers able to penetrate meters deep into the surfaces of planetary
bodies. No spacecraft of this type has so far flown successfully. The
Chinese article starts with an in depth review of the state of the
development of planetary penetrators snince the late Fifties and goes
on
to describe the state of the art in other countries. It then describes
the development of similar technology in China, apparently recycling
data on weaponry designed to attack heavily armoured targets, such as
nuclear power plants and data on the reinforcement of such targets. It
then describes technologies needed for such a probe, including material
science where the problem is finding a suitable material able to
withstand the very heavy load of the impact (steel, titanium or
tungsten), geometric design of the probe to ensure that it can be kept
stable during the impact and penetration and finally component design
to
ensure survivability of the probe's internal systems. The article hints
at the possiblity that the Chinese have started experimenting with
artillery shells against concrete targets in order to design a
survivable planetary penetrator.
8) Wang Dayi, Ma Xingrui, Li Tieshou, Yan Hui, Neuro-Optimal
Guidance Law for Lunar Soft Landing, Systems Engineering and
Electronics, 1999 Vol.21 No.12 pp.31-36
Abstract: Returning to Moon has become a top topic recently.
Many
studies have shown that soft landing is a challenging problem in lunar
exploration. The lunar soft landing in this paper begins from a 100 km
circular lunar parking orbit .Once the landing area has been selected
and it is time to deorbit for landing,a Delta-V burn of 19.4m/s is
performed to establish an 100 x 15 km elliptical orbit.At perilune,the
landing jets are ignited,and a propulsive landing is performed. A
guidance and control scheme for lunar soft landing is proposed in this
paper,which combines optimal theory with nonlinear neuro-control.
Basically,an optimal nonlinear control law based on an artificial
neural
network is presented,on the basis of the optimum trajectory from
perilune to lunar surface in terms of Pontryagin's maximum principle
according to the terminal boundary conditions and performance index.
Therefore some optimal nonlinear control law can be carried out in the
soft landing system due to the nonlnear mapping function of the neural
network.The feasibility and validity of the control law are verified in
a simulation experiment.
Comment: another paper on neural control systems applied to the
Lunar landing problem. It details the soft landing control system of a
probe which is first inserted in a 100 km circular orbit and then into
a
100 x 15 km descent orbit. The paper analyzes the case of a 600 kg
probe
having a liquid propellant braking rocket with a specific impulse of
210
s and a maximum thrust of 2400 N. It also briefly refers to a sample
return unmanned probe to be launched before men return to the Moon.
9) LI Teng and YANG Wei, LunarNet - An Innovative Project for
Lunar Mission. Proceeding of The Eighth International Space
Conference of Pacific-basin Societies 1999, pp. 698-701.
Abstract: An innovative and feasible lunar project - Lunarnet -
is presented in the paper. It is composed of a lunar orbiter and a
lunar
probe net, through which an information network is formed. Moreover,
the
detectable information and project features are described in detail.
Comment: This paper (in English), has been published by Tsinghua
University researchers and describes in some detail a mission called
LunarNet. This includes a polar orbiter equipped with no less than
sixteen landers having an empty mass of 28 kg to be released in equally
spaced areas on two mutually perpendicular orbital planes. The landing
system, probably using airbags, would ensure surviving a landing at
speeds between 12 and 22 m/s. The landers should carry a camera,
temperature sensors, cosmic ray detectors, a penetrometer, an
instrument
for soil magnetic properties measurement and other instruments.
It contains a single reference to a final report on a Global scheme
of mini lunar detector system drafted under project 863 in 1998.
xiv) Deep space net technology evolution. Range testing and
management, 1999 Vol. 2, pp. 32-43, 1999 Vol. 3, pp.37-43
xv) Review of non complanar lunar transfer orbits and fuel
consumption estimate, Annual meeting of the Space Science
Academic Society space machinery group, 1999
xvi) Review of the main problems of the orbit of a low thrust
lunar lander and related research, Annual meeting of the Space
Science Academic Society space machinery group, 1999
xvii) Recommendations for Chinese deep space missions in the
next century and its Related C & T technology. In:
Proceeding
of 8th Iscops, 1999: pp. 109-124
2000
10) Zhuang Jun, Qiu Ping, Sun Zengqi, Distributed
telerobotic system with large time delay, Journal of Tsinghua
University, 2000, Vol.40, No.1, pp.80-83
Abstract: Teleoperation system with distributed simulation is
introduced. The system is used to solve the round-trip time delay
problem in space robot teleoperation system. The system includes a
3D-simulation robot and a real robot. The command sequences are
generated in conjunction with the movement of the simulation robot and
are sent to the real robot after the simulation time delay. The data
returned from the real robot is compared with the data from the
simulation robot to verify operation results.
Comment: This appears to be a Chinese version of the paper
referenced as 1.
11) Li Jun, Sun Demin, The Vision System and
Autonomous Navigation System for the Lunar Rover, Aerospace
Control, 2000 Vol.18 No.2 pp.46-51
Abstract: This paper summarizes the vision system and autonomous
navigation system for the Lunar rover, discusses the vision system,
controlling methods and path planning systems, at the end proposes a
self-autonomous navigation system and some related methods.
Comment: this article deals with a control system for autonomous
navigation for a lunar rover, i.e., a control system which uses images
taken by a camera and a certain amount of artificial intelligence to
detect obstacles and to plot a path that clears them.
12) Wang Jie, Cui Nai-gang, Liu Dun, Preliminary study on
minimum-fuel lunar probe trajectories, Flight Dynamics, 2000
Vol.18 No.2 pp.46-49
Abstract: reliminary research on lunar probe orbit control
technology based on planar two bodies model and planar polar three
bodies model is introduced in this paper.Under two bodies model,probe
trajectory simulation with different thrust modes based on escaping
condition and "coverage apogee" condition is studied.Then, "coverage
apogee" condition is applied to trajectory study under planar
polar three bodies model. Flight trajectories control technology from
low earth orbit to lunar sphere of influence (LSOI) is present as
well.The result of simulation proves that the concept of "coverage
apogee" is feasible to be applied to terminal point selection for earth
escaping stage.
Comment: This paper discusses the trajectory of a low thrust
(i.e. ionic) propulsion lunar orbiter spiraling out of Low Earth Orbit.
13) Chen Zong-hai, Lunar Probe Path Planning Using Case-Based
Learning Algorithm, Aeronautical Computer Technique, 2000,
Vol.30
No.2 pp.1-4
Abstract: This paper presents a mobile robot part path planning
scheme using case-based learning algorithm. Case-based learning is
relatively a new approach to path planning. Case-based learning is
learning and reasoning from past episodic information about the
environment. A new and suitable solution is generated by retrieving and
adapting an old one, which approximately matches the current situation.
In this research, we discussed the problen that how to use case-based
learning in mobile robot part path planning, and gave some algorithm.
Comment: Another paper on Lunar Rover guidance and path
planning.
14) Zeng Guo-Qiang, Xi Xiao-Ning, Ren Xuan, An Algebraic
Method for Fast Design of Lunar Satellite Transfer Trajectory, Journal
of the National University of Defense Technology, 2000, Vol.22, No.2
pp.1-6
Abstract: A fast design method for the lunar satellite transfer
trajectory is presented by combining patched-conic technique and
ephemeris. This method is a pure algebraic method that doesnt need
trajectory integral. It has the characteristics of rapidity and high
accuracy, and can be used for preliminary design of the lunar satellite
transfer trajectory. The time for precise trajectory design will be
reduced greatly when parameters gotten from preliminary design is used
as the initial value of precise design.
Comment: This article describes an all geometrical method of
performing a preliminary calculation of the transfer orbit for a Lunar
Probe. It includes an example for a 43 degrees inclination parking
orbit
and discusses the sensitivity of the method to the variation of some
geometrical parameters of the orbit.
15) Zeng Guo-Qiang, Xi Xiao-Ning, Ren Xuan, A Study on the
Optimal Low-Thrust Orbit Maneuver of Lunar Satellite, Acta
Astronomica Sinica, 2000 Vol.41 No.3 pp.289-299
Abstract: The minimum-fuel-consumption problem of low-thrust
orbit maneuver from a hyperbolic orbit to a circular orbit is studied.
At first, the problem is divided into two parts: orbit maneuver from a
hyperbolic orbit to an elliptic orbit and orbit maneuver from an
elliptic orbit to a circular orbit. Then, a genetic algorithm is used
to
solve the optimization problem in the cases of impulse assumption,
low-thrust orbit maneuver from a hyperbolic orbit to an elliptic orbit,
and low-thrust orbit maneuver from an elliptic orbit to a circular
orbit
with transfer time constraint.
Comment: this paper compares the lunar orbit insertion maneuver
for a 600 kg chemical propulsion orbiter and a similar low thrust
propulsion orbiter.
16) Wang Dayi, Li Tieshou, Ma Xingrui, Numerical Solution of
TPBVP in Optimal Lunar Soft Landing, Aerospace Control, 2000
Vol.18 No.3 pp.44-49
Abstract: Minimal fuel guidance is the primary demand for lunar
soft landing. First, the Maximum principle is used to generate an
optimal guidance law for lunar landing, and the TPBVP is to be solved
as
a result of the numerical solution for optimal trajectory. In
this
paper, shooting methods based on an initial variable guess technique
are
proposed to solve the TPBVP, and the optimal landing trajectory
is
obtained. A simulation result os given to demonstrate the feasibity of
the improved method of the improved method for iteration
calculation.
Comment: Yet another article on Lunar soft landing
optimization.
17) Deep space communication and tracking problems,
international solutions, present situation and our country's response,
Journal of Flight Vehicle Observation and Control journal, 2000,
Vol.19, No.3, pp.23-29
Abstract (my interpretation of a translation by Altavista's Babel Fish): This
article details the deep space tracking system scope, poses five
main questions, including tracking, and describes how these five
questions are being answered. Next, it introduces the essential
technologies that currently solve these questions in foreign systems.
Finally, proposes that our country develops a three step approach to
deep space tracking and that it should in time address eight main
research topics.
Comment: Unfortunately, this paper is available in Chinese only.
It is however quite interesting for very little is known of the
Chinese proposed deep space tracking system.
18) Wang Jie, Cui Naigang, Liu Dun , Study on Lunar
Soft Landing by the Method of Establishment of the Lunar Perpendicular,
Missiles and Space Vehicles, No.4, 2000, pp. 45-47
Abstract: In this paper, a feasible lunar soft-landing method -
the method of establishment of the lunar perpendicular - is given. The
theoretical derivation and error estimation of the method are presented
as well. And the method was applied in the flight of the first lunar
soft-landing probe - Luna-9 successfully.
Comment: this paper deals with the simple lunar landing
technique
of perpendicular landing. This mean having a spacecraft cutting its
speed relative to the Moon only in the direction of the center of the
Moon. This technique was first used by the Soviet E-6/E-6M
lunar landers in the Sixties but it can provide for a safe
landing only on a limited area in the western Ocean of Storms (Oceanus
Procellarum). Incidentally, the Soviet E-8-5
lunar sample return probes that the Chinese are reportedly using as an
inspiration used an ascent profile from the Moon that mirrored the
perpendicular landing techniques.
19) Xi Xiao-Ning, Zeng Guo-Qiang, Zhu Wen-Yao, Window
Selection for the Lunar Probe Launched from the Earth, Acta
Astronomica Sinica, 2000 Vol.41 No.4 pp.361-372
Abstract: A typical orbit of lunar probe includes earth
parking orbit segment, earth-moon transfer orbit segment, lunar
satellite orbit segment and moon - landing orbit segment. In this
paper,
firstly, the typical constraint conditions of orbital design of lunar
probe launched from the earth are introduced. Then, by using the
hypothesis of two-body problem, a series of formulae are set up for
analyzing the influence caused by every constraint condition, and the
flight time and sketchy windows of every segment are given. Lastly,
according to the precise dynamical model of the probe, the precise
windows are computed and an example of window selection is provided.
Comment: this paper provides a simple geometic way of
calculating launch window time for a lunar probe.
20) Ping Jinsong, Y. Kono, N. Kawano, How spin of a
stabilized S/C affects 2-way Doppler tracking, Journal of
Beijing Normal University (Natural Science), 2000, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp.
535-544
Abstract: Doppler tracking measurement is one of the main
methods for tracking a spacecraft. In order to get higher order
coefficients of the lunar gravity field by using lunar orbiter, Doppler
frequency data with 1 MHz accuracy at S-band, which are obtained every
few tens seconds data, are required. However, the effect due to the
spin
of S/C will overlaid to the Doppler tracking observable. This kind of
effect and the way to remove it away from Doppler frequency data are
discussed.
Comment: This paper is authored by a Chinese author and two
Japanese ones. It concerns measurements of the lunar gravity field to
be
carried out by small spinning subsatellites released by the Japanese
SELENE probe sometime after 2004. It is possible that Chinese
scientists
and engineers will somehow participate to this Japanese lunar mission.
21) Wang Dayi, Li Tieshou ,Yan Hui, Ma Xingrui, Guidance
Control for Lunar Gravity-Turn Descent, Chinese Space Science
and Technology, 2000 Vol.20 No.5 pp.17-23
Abstract: The feedback Iinearization method is utilized to
generate guidance laws to track desired height and velocity
profiles respectively for lunar gravity-turn descent. The Lyapunov
stability of the two following control systems is demonstrated in
use of related theory of differential geometry. Furthermore, an
attainable set for initial conditions of the gravity-turn descent
is deduced according to the constraints of thrust, fuel and states of
the soft landing system. Finally, an example of the following
guidance law is presented which needs only slant range, velocity and
local vertical information. This method may allow simple guidance with
less complex sensors for low-ost soft landing on the lunar surface.
Comment: Another paper on lunar landing control systems by Wang
Dayi, Li Tieshou and Ma Xingrui.
22) Liu Lin, C.K.Shum, Analytic perturbation solutions to the
Venusian orbiter due to the nonspherical gravitational potential,
Science in China, 2000, Vol.43, No.5, pp 552-560
Abstract: The analytic perturbation solutions to the motions of
a planetary orbiter given in this paper are effective for
0<e<1,where e is the orbital eccentricity of the orbiter.In
the solution,it is assumed that the rotation of the central body is
slow,and its astronomical background is clear. Examples for such
planets
in the solar system are Venus and Mercury.The perturbation solution is
tested numerically on two Venusian orbiters with eccentric orbits,PVO
and Magellan,and found to be effective.
Comment: This is a theoretical paper, by a Chinese author and an
American one, on orbital perturbations to a Venus orbiter due to the
gravitational field of the planet, probably unrelated to Chinese deep
space exploration projects.
23) Wang Jie, Cui Naigang, Liu Dun, Zhou Wenyan, Fuel
Consumption Estimation of Limited-Thrust Lunar Probe, Missiles
and Space Vehicles, 2000 No.6 pp.10-13
Abstract: In this paper, applying Patched Conic Technology
based on double two-body problem and Tsiolkhovskii formula to
calculate fuel consumption of lunar probe is introduced. And
optimal-orbital lunar probe's fuel consumption estimation technique is
presented as well. Fuel consumption for a series of lunar-probe engines
with different thrust-weight ratios and specific impulses is simulated
based on above two techniques. The results show a good consistency
between the two techniques.
Comment: Another article on lunar orbit insertion maneuvers used
by a low thrust propulsion orbiter.
24) Wang Dayi, Li Tieshou,Yan Hui, Ma Xingrui, Explicit
Guidance Control for Lunar Soft Landing, High Technology
Letters, 2000, Vol.10, No.7, pp.88-92
Abstract: An explicit guidance metho d based on a polynomial
guidance law for the powered lunar soft landing is proposed. It is
derived from the minimum fuel path solved by the optimal control
theory.
The guidance law can adjust the landing point. Information of system
parameters are not necessary for the guidance law, neither is any
iterative process. An example of a lunar landing is given to
demonstrate
the optimality and ro bustness of the guidance law.
Comment: Still another paper on lunar landing control systems by
the group which includes Ma Xingrui of CAST. This paper includes a
detailed analysis of the descent profile of a 600 kg lander using a 300
s specific impulse engine (possibly an hypergolic N2O4-UDMH engine) and
using a 100 x 15 km lunar parking orbit.
 |
The Chinese lunar lander descent profile according to the
paper "Explicit Guidance Control for Lunar Soft Landing" |
26) Wang Dayi, Li Tieshou,Yan Hui, Ma Xingrui: A Sub-Optimal
Fuel Guidance Law for Lunar Soft Landing, Journal of
Astronautics, No. 4, 2000, pp. 55-63
Abstract: The lunar soft landing in this paper begins from a circular
lunar parking orbit. Once the landing area has been selected, and it is
time to de-orbit for landing, a Delta V burn is performed to establish
an elliptical orbit. At perilune the landing thruster is ignited, and a
propulsive landing is performed. Similar to the guidance of launch
vehicles, a uniform gravity field on lunar surface is assumed. An
explicit guidance law for powered descending phase is proposed to
minimize the fuel consumption. The law is a function of the time-to-go.
Iterative calculation is not needed. It is an explicit easily
mechanized
sub-optimal guidance law.
Comment: Still another article on soft landing controls by the
same team. The detail of the descent profiles are not very different
than those in paper number 24.
As an aside, this paper's bibliography includes a paper by Amalia
Ercoli Finzi, who was my thesis advisor.
27) Zeng Guoqiang, Xi Xiaonin, Ren Xuan: A Study of Lunar
Swing-by Technique, Journal of Astronautics, No. 4, 2000,
pp.107-110
Abstract: Magnitude and direction of geocentric velocity of
spacecraft can be changed after a lunar swing-by. Patched-conic
technique can be used for preliminary analysis of lunar swing-by. It is
indicated that using lunar swing-by technique can reduce velocity
increment needed for launching geostationary satellite and reversed
satellite.The higher the launching site is, the more velocity increment
is saved.
Comment: an article on a "mainstream" theme of lunar
exploration,
namely that of changing a spacecraft's orbit using the Moon's
gravitation. What the "reversed satellite" mentioned in the abstract is
is not clear to me.
This was the third paper on lunar flights published in a single issue
of the Chinese Journal of Astronautics!
28) LI Teng and YANG Wei, Global Scheme of Lunar-Earth
Information Network. Proceeding of the First International
Conference on Astronautics and Aeronautics 2000, pp. 477-480
Abstract: A global scheme of Lunar-Earth Information Network is
proposed in this paper. It is composed of a lunar-earth messenger, a
lunar orbiter and a lunar probe net, through which an information
collection and communication network is formed. Moreover, the triune
exploration and project features are described in detail.
Comment: This paper (in English) deals with the LunarNet mission
proposes in paper number 9. In it the researchers propose an ingenious
system to obviate to the lack of a Chinese deep space network. A relay
satellite is to orbit the Earth on an orbit with apogee near the Moon
an
perigee at some 6,000 km, collecting data from the orbiter and landers
during its frequent lunar fly-bies and relaying them to Earth at
perigee. This system, however does not simplify the uplink of commands
from Earth to the probes.
29)Li Jun, Sun Demin, Path Planning Using Case-Based Learning
and its Neural Network Implementation of the Lunar Vehicle's
Self-Autonomous Navigation; Proceedings of the 3rd World
Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation 2000, pp. 1182-1186
Abstract: This paper presents an half-autonomous navigation
method of the Lunar Vehicle, then discuss [sic!] the
implementation of the case-based learning method by using Neural
Network. At the end, we discuss the improvement of BP algorithm using
adaprive learning method.
Comment:
xviii) Ding Xi Lun, et al. Research on robots for unmanned
planetary exploration [?]. South central industrial university
journal, 2000, 31 (Special number acts of the "China in 2000
robot
study congress", Changsha, 2000-10-23 ~ 26) pp. 438-441
xix) Zhu Senyuan, One of the Space Craze Will Be Lunar Exploration Early in the 21st Century. World Sci-Tech R&D, Vol. 22, No. 2 April 2000 pp. 9-10
2001
30) Wang Jie, Cui Naigang, Liu Dun, On Constant-Amplitude
Low-Thrust Lunar Probe Trajectories, Acta Aeronautica et
Astronautica Sinica, 2001, Vol.22, No.1
Abstract: The flight trajectories from low earth parking orbit
(LEO) to low lunar parking orbit (LLO) based on a planar
three-body model are studied. Trajectories and some key
parameters
of the three stages, the earth escape stage, coast arc stage, and
lunar capture stage, are presented as well. The concept of "coverage
apogee" and the selenocentric energy are first, respectively,
introduced to accomplish the terminal point determination of the
earth escape stage and the initial point determination of the
lunar capture stage.
Comment: Another article on the low-thrust lunar probe. It is
funded under Project 863, aimed at introducing new, higher technologies
in space technology. Some numerical details of the probe are given: it
is a 300 kg probe using a 200 km high Earth parking orbit. The low
thrust engine has a maximal thrust of 9 N (quite high for an ion
engine), a specific impulse of 2000 s and a fuel consumption rate of
0.00046 kg/s
31) Su Y., The prospect of FAST in deep space exploration,
Acta Astronomical Sinica 2001, Vol.42, No.1, pp. 61-69
Abstract: A five hundred meters Aperture Spherical Telescope
(FAST), the largest radio telescope in the world, has been proposed to
be built in a karst depression in Guizhou Province. It puts forward a
new concept of active main reflector, which enables the realization of
both wide bandwidth and full polarization capability. The
simplification
of feed support system expands the coverage of tracking object and
space
flight. Fairly good performances of the FAST in the telemetering and
communication systems as well as its status in the global Deep Space
Network (DSN) are briefly described,followed by presenting preliminary
consideration for international cooperation in the future.
Comment: It is a paper on the FAST radio telescope detailing its
use as a deep space tracking antenna.
For more on FAST see:
FAST page @ Beijing
Astronomical Observatory Site
"A
Novel Design for a Giant Arecibo-type Spherical Radio Telescope with an
Active Main Reflector"
"The
Influence of Panel Gaps on the System Noise Temperature of the FAST"
"Structural
Analysis of FAST Reflector Supporting System and its Joints"
"On the
cable-car feed support configuration for FAST " (WARNING: Very Large (17 Mb) pdf file!)
 |
A Rendering of the Chinese Five hundred meters Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) |
32) Liu Lin, To guide a probe to the Moon with light pressure,
Acta Astronomica Sinica, 2001 Vol.42, No.1, pp. 70-74
English translation published in: Chinese
Astronomy and Astrophysics, v. 25, iss. 3, p. 343-348, 2001
Abstract: In the dynamical model of circular restricted
three-body problem and for launching a lunar probe from parking orbit,
the minimum initial velocity should satisfy the condition that the
Jacobian constant C is smaller than C2 (in the Earth-Moon system,
C2=3.20034491). Then the probe may be accelerated to a speed of
Vp>10.8746 km/s at perigee (some 200 km high). However, this is only
the necessary condition for the probe to fly to the moon and the voyage
time is too long. If a Hohmann transfer orbit is adopted, a more
impulse
for the orbit transfer will be required, and in a sense more power will
be consumed. If it is needed to carefully explore the environment of
the
Earth-Moon space and not to fly to the moon so quickly, then to the
base
of the above minimum velocity the probe can be guided faster to the
moon
with light pressure. For this reason, a large solar energy sail with a
special normal needs to be installed on the probe. In this way, the
purpose of exploring the Earth-Moon space can be attained and the
flight
will not spend a very long time. The results of computations show that
the above-stated plan is effective. If the section area of the solar
energy sail is large enough (provided that it can be implemented by
techniques), then without any power the probe can be guided to the moon
with light pressure just like a space sailboat.
Comment: An interesting introductory paper on the navigation
strategies for lunar sails to the Moon, describing the flight of a
120x120 m, 500 kg spacecraft starting from a 1000 km perigee orbit with
apogee 1/2 the distance of the Moon. A very similar paper to this one,
by the same author (Using
Light Pressure to Guide A Probe to The Moon) was presented at the
50th International Astronautical Congress on 4-8 October 1999 in
Amsterdam, The Netherlands. This is not the first time Chinese
engineers
have been working on solar sails, for a Chinese solar sail powered
spacecraft was proposed for the 1992 Columbus race to Mars.
33) Lunar transfer orbit approximated model and influence
estimate of the approximation (?), Journal of Flight Vehicle
Observation and Control journal (FEIXINGQI CEKONG XUEBAO), 2001, Vol.
20, No.1, pp. 55-62
Abstract (my interpretation of a translation by Altavista's Babel Fish): The
lunar transfer orbit passes through two gravitational spheres of
influence (of the Earth and of the Moon), thus the lunar transfer orbit
can be approximated as two patches of orbit obeying to the two-body
problem. After considering the actual characteristics of the lunar
transfer orbit, the numerical integration tool, the perturbation model
and its semplification satisfying the required precision were chosen.
34) Wang Wei, Wen Yuan-lan, Zeng Guo-qiang, Xi Xiao-ning, GPS
Navigation of the Lunar Probe in the Close Earth Orbit Phase,
Journal of National University of Defense Technology, 2001, Vol.23,
No.2, pp. 1-5
Abstract: The lunar probe requires accurate information on
position and velocity when it runs on its close phase of orbit.
Dynamical estimation with GPS can provide the accuracy needed.
This paper presents a description of the conditions about choosing the
GPS satellites and the numbers of the available GPS satellites on close
phase of orbit, the solutions of dynamical method with GPS, and the
influences with different sampling intervals and force models. The
results show that the dynamical method with GPS can meet the precision
requirement with reduced force models and 5s sampling interval.
Comment: A paper on the possible use of the Global Positioning
System to determine the position and velocity of the lunar probe during
the parking orbit phase and during the first part of the lunar transfer
orbit. It includes an analysis of the number of satellites visible
depending on the distance of the probe from Earth and a detailed error
analysis for the main portion of the flight. A similar experiment,
designed to receive GPS side lobes from lunar orbit has been proposed
for the private Trailblazer probe.
35) Xu Rui, Cui Hutao, Cui Pingyuan, Yang Di, The Active
Nutation Control of the Small Lunar Explorer, High Technology
Letters, 2001 Vol.11 No.3 pp.82-84,87
Abstract: Spin stability is taken for the small lunar explorer
to
build up the solid motor firing attitude when it was injected from the
Earth-berth orbit to the Earth-Moon transfer orbit. The prolate body
and
the energy dissipation lead to the instability of the spinning. Two
common control scheme was used to design the active nutation
controller.
For the disadvantage of wasting fuel, a fuzzy active nutation control
scheme was proposed. The three schemes were all given the numerical
simulation result.
Comment: This is the first paper I have seen dealing with
actual details of a lunar probe which appears to be a simple cilidrical
spinner spinning once every second.
36) Ma Kemao, Chen Lijia, Wang Zicai, Practical Design of
Control Law for Flight Vehicle Soft Landing, Missiles and Space
Vehicles, 2001 No.2, pp. 39-43
Abstract: For flight vehicle soft landing on certain planet,
robust control law is designed based on the technique of sliding modes
in variable structure systems, the realization of the control law in
engineering is discussed, and as a result, a simple and practical
control law is developed. Simulation research justifies the feasibility
of the proposed method.
Comment: The main interest of this paper on control systems for
planetary soft landers is that it includes the example of a Mars
lander,
the first time I have seen a direct reference to such a probe in the
Chinese technical literature!
37) Huang, C.; Hu, X. G.; Li, X., Lunar-landing
trajectory designing under certain constraints, Acta
Astronomica
Sinica, vol.42, no.2, p. 161-172
Abstract: This article presents a method to design a
Lunar-landing trajectory under certain constraints. The meaning of the
constraints is analyzed and reduced to manageable forms. The constrains
are classified into two categories: kinetic constraints deal with the
relative configurations among Sun, Moon, Earth, spacecraft and tracking
stations, while dynamic constrains concern the orbit of the spacecraft.
Kinetic constraints generally select the launching dates of a month to
satisfy the tracking network constraint and the landing hours of a day
to satisfy the illumination constraint. Dynamic constraints reduce the
6
degrees of freedom for a spacecraft to 3 and impose limits on the
adjustment of the 3 free parameters. To find the proper initial
parameters for the trajectory search, a Lunar-landing trajectory is
approximately treated as a combination of two separate perturbed
two-body orbits. With the analytic solution for a two-body problem and
the numerical solution for a perturbed problem available, the search
can
be simplified by first requiring the trajectory enter the Hill radius
of
the Moon, and then fine-tune the parameters to satisfy all the
constraints. Although it is unlikely the standard trajectory this paper
obtains will be materialized due to the unrealistic constraints, as
explained in the context, the method of searching standard flight
trajectories can be generalized to treat other Lunar-landing missions
under different constraints.
Comment:
38) Wang Wei, Xia Yuhua, Liang Bin, Qiang Wenyi, Liu Liangdong, Study
on the Critical Technology for a Lunar Rover, Robot, 2001, No.
3, pp. 280-
Abstract: In this paper we discuss the critical technology for
a lunar rover research and present a realization method of developing a
lunar rover system on the basis of the situation of our country.
Besides
an intelligent sensing system is introduced as well so that the lunar
rover concerned could
achieve its selfautonomous navigation and control under the
complicated, atrocious, unknown environment on the moon.
Comment: Another study on the lunar rover project.
39) Li Litao, et al. Collectivity Scheme Design for Modern
Small Lunar Explorer, High Technology Letters, 2001 Vol.11 No.5
pp.80-84
Abstract (my interpretation of a translation by Altavista's Babel Fish): Based
on the modern small satellite system design and philosophy, and the
design experience and achievements of the Harbin first small university
satellite, the design of a small lunar probe is carried out, its layout
and various subsystems are designed and analyzed, a proposal for its
GNC
system is discussed and the orbit is analyzed and computed.
Comment: This paper appears to be a detailed study of a small
lunar orbiter including discussion of many of its features.
Unfortunately, I have been able to read the abstract only and not the
whole paper.
40) Liu Fang-Hu A five wheeled lunar robot and its
characteristics analysis, Journal of Machine Design, 2001 Vol.
18 No. 5, pp. 15-18
Abstract: A kind of new typed lunar robot-five-wheeled lunar
robot-was advanced. Its functions of crossing over barriers, turning,
static stability and of adhesion have been studied. The testing result
shows that this kind of robot is very capable to suit complex
three-dimensioned landform and is able to satisfy fairly good the
demands of exercising on the moon.
Comment:
41) Wang Wei, Wen Yuan-lan, Zeng Guo-qiang, Xi Xiao-ning, Navigation
for the Lunar Probe Based on Ground Tracking Sites, Journal of
National University of Defense Technology, 2001, Vol.23, No.6, pp.
33-37
Abstract (my interpretation of a translation by Systran) The
visibility of the orbit of a lunar orbiting probe from the Earth is
analyzed, several questions on the navigation of a lunar probe based on
ground tracking sites are discussed, including the selection of
tracking
data, the distribution of gound stations, course corrections and so on.
The results indicates the importance of the ground station location,
that range tracking is to be used in order to carry out real time
navigation of the probe. The research method and results may be applied
to the actual problem of the lunar probe orbit determination.
Comment:
42) Hao Yingming, et al. Direct Adaptive Control of a Lunar
Robot Position with High Precision Using Fuzzy Neural Network,
High Technology Letters, 2001 Vol.11 No.8 P.89-92
Abstract (my interpretation of a translation by Altavista's Babel Fish): In
view of the conventional fuzzy control insufficiency, this paper
proposes a new kind of fuzzy neural direct auto-adapted control,
unifying fuzzy control, neural control and the auto-adapted control
merit, realizes the fuzz control implementation and applies it to the
lunar rover position control. The simulation results prove this control
scheme superiority, validity and feasibility.
Comment:
43) Jia Shijin, She Mingshen, The Theory of Changing
Satellite Orbit Inclination Using Moon Gravitation, Chinese
Space
Science and Technology, 2001, Vol. 21, No.5, pp. 25-33
Abstract: The activity of Hughes using moon gravitation for
orbit
change of "Asiasat-3" satellite made great sensation in the world.In
this paper,through the concept of effect sphere,explained the theory of
orbit inclination changing using gravitation of celestial body is
explained.To use this theory, the orbit and the space position of the
celestial body must fulfil certain conditions. A supposed orbit to show
the effect of the moon gravitation on the orbit inclination is also
introduced.
Comment: This paper deals with the use the Moon for deep space
manoeuvres, as recently done by the US HGS-1 satellite (aka Asiasat-3).
For more on HGS-1 see my book on lunar
exploration history (chapter 6).
44) Ping J., Kono Y., Kawano N., Hansda H., Matsumoto K., RISE
Group, SELENE Mission: Mathematical Model for SST Doppler
Measurements, Progress in Astronomy, 2001,
Abstract: Japanese lunar exploration mission, SELENE, has
been planned to be launched into space by using H II-a rocket in the
Summer of 2004. This mission is composed of 3 subsatellites, a main
lunar orbiter, a relay satellite and a free flying VLBI radio source.
One of its main scientific objectives is the estimation of high order
and degree spherical harmonic coefficients for the lunar gravity field.
Different tracking methods will be employed in SELENE. The key tracking
method is 4 way Satellite-to-Satellite Tracking (SST) technique. By
this
way, the tracking data can be obtained through the relay satellite when
the low altitude main orbiter is flying at the far-side of the Moon and
can not be seen from the Earth. To
success the historical tracking data, a complete coverage of Doppler
traking from an orbiter at sufficiently low altitude with high tracking
accuracy can be obtained. The 4 way SST has various configurations. For
SELENE, The SST tracking mode is introduced here, the mathematical
relation between range rate and 4 way Doppler count number is
established, and a data processing stream frame by using GEODYN II is
suggested.
Comment: This is the second paper I found dealing with a Chinese
participation to the Japanese SELENE mission. It describes the mission
as currently envisaged after its most recent redesign.
45) Liu Fang-hu, Ma Pei-sun, Cao Zhi-kui et
al. Kinematic Modeling of a Five Wheel Articulated Lunar Robot,
Robot, Vol. 23, No.6 2001, pp. 481-485
Abstract: This paper presents a new kinematic modeling method
for an autonomous wheeled mobile robot operating in a 3-dimensional
complex terrain with entrenchments, steps, and slopes. The new method
is
called Tangent Planes Combination Method (TPCM). The main idea of the
TPCM is to form a composite kinematics model for a robot operating in
rough terrain combining different kinematics models of the robot on
different slopes at different time. This kinematic modeling method has
characteristics, such as simplicity, a controllable accuracy of a
robotic kinematics model, etc. By use of TPCM the forward and inverse
kinematics models for a five-wheel articulated lunar robot (FWALR)
operating in rough terrain was found. Thus, the FWALR robot has a base
to control its movement in a 3-dimensional complex terrain.
Comment: The first of several papers on the control of a five
wheeled lunar rover. I have yet to understand what a five wheeled lunar
rover looks like.
xx) Wu Jianhua, Cao Zuoliang, Wang Ying, Yuan Xu, Xing Enhong, Lu
Guicai, Jim Charlmers, Design Concepts of the Lunar Rover and
Methods of Remote Control
xxi) Yanlin Xu, Wenjuan Lu, and Jihong Zhu, The study of lunar
Rover at Tsinghua University
xxii) Pingyuan Cui, Hehua Ju, Hutao Cui, Autonomous
behavior-based micro-rover for lunar exploration
Comment: These three papers were presented to a congress on
robotics held at Beijing Institute of Technology in late May 2001.
xxiii) Ouyang Zhiyuan, Explorations of the Moon: an Outlook
xxiv) Li Chunlai, The Objectives of Moon exploration of
China
xxv) Ping Jinsong, Lunar exploration and lunar science in the
following years
xxvi) Zou Yongliao, The prospectives of resources exploration of
the Moon
xxvii) Liu Jianzhong, The prospectives of energy exploration of
the Moon
Comment: These two papers (xx and xxi) and three posters were
presented to the colloquium "Astronomy and Chinese Astronomy:
Present and Future" held in Beijing in mid December 2001.
xxviii) Xi Xiao-ning, Zeng Guo-qiang, Moon Probe Orbit Design
Comment: This monographic book was published by the Defense
industry publishing house in 2001.
xxix) Shen Zuwei: Lunar Spacecraft
Landing Technologies; Seminar on the research and development of
technolgies for deep space exploration, Beijing November (?) 2001
xxx) Tong Yinan et al: Research on the
Structural Design of a Lunar Landing Spacecraft; Seminar on the
research and development of technolgies for deep space exploration,
Beijing November (?) 2001
xxxi) Liu Xiaofeng et al: A Survey of
Shock Absorbing Techniques for Lunar Soft Landing Spacecraft;
Seminar on the research and development of technolgies for deep space
exploration, Beijing November (?) 2001
xxxii) Hui Feng et al: Research on a
Type of Lunar Stabilized Landing Shock Absorber, Seminar on the
research and development of technolgies for deep space exploration,
Beijing November (?) 2001
2002
46) Wang Wei, Liang Bin, Simulation Study on a Lunar Robot
Locomotion System Based on the Virtual Prototyping Technique,
High Technology Letters, Vol. 12, No.2 2002, pp. 84-87
Abstract (my interpretation of a translation by Systran): Using
the virtual prototyping technology, a complete three dimensional entity
is designed, a dynamic and control framework is constructed and the
appearance of the lunar surface is simulated on computer and applied to
research on the simulation of Lunar Robot statics, kinematics and
dynamics. This study has then provided input and validation for various
Lunar Robot design parameters, dynamics parameters and control
algorithm
optimization.
Comment:
47) Gu Lixiang, Liu Zhusheng, Research on Phasing Loops Earth
to Moon Transfer Orbit, Missiles and Space Vehicles, 2002 No.3
Abstract: A new type of the earth to moon transfer orbit
phasing loopsorbit is widely used during the second lunar exploration
activities. This orbit can increase mission flexibility and reduce the
velocity increment needed of orbit modification. The basic knowledge ,
benefits and drawbacks, method and capability of correcting the TTI
error are discussed in this paper, anddesigning method of lunar
transfer
orbit and problems met during actual flight of Hiten and DSPSE lunar
exploration planning are also described.
Comment: The subject of this paper was already analyzed in
paper number 5. This paper is mostly an analysis of the Earth to Moon
transfer orbits of Clementine and Hiten, which both used the phasing
loop technique.
48) Liu Fang Hu, Chen Jianping, Ma Pei Sun, Cao Zhi Kui: Research
Status and Development Trends towards Planetary Exploration Robots;
Robot, 2002, Vol. 24 No. 3 pp. 268-275
Abstract: The research status of Planetary Exploration Robots
(PER) is detailed, the main problems still standing in the developments
of PER are analyzed and the PER development trends are forecasts
Comment: This paper appears to
be a rather long survey of planetary robots, mainly developed in the
US,
Europe and Japan
49) Zhang Zhen Min, Cui Hu Tao, Yang Di, High-precision
Pointing Control for Small Lunar Explorer, High Technology
Letters, Vol. 12 No. 4 2002, pp. 80-82
Abstract (my interpretation of a translation by Systran): In view
of the small lunar orbiter three axis stabilization requirements of
high
pointing accuracy and high stabilty, a method based on Euler dynamics
is
described, a dynamical model of the small lunar orbiter in the lunar
orbit stage of the flight is established and a control system
comprising
three mutually orthogonal lightweight reaction wheels is analyzed,
producing a PD [Proportional-Derivative] attitude control law. The
analysis carried out on this attitude control law indicates that the
probe may achieve a pointing accuracy of 0.3 degrees and a stability of
0.01 degrees/second, confirming the control law feasibility.
Comment: An extremely interesting paper on a very
"applicational"
topic. The control system is of a conventional architecture with three
axis stabilization. The figures mentioned in the abstract indicate that
the "Small Lunar Explorer" would be suited for lunar imaging. Pointing
accuracy in particular is of the same order of magnitude as the
European
SMART-1 lunar probe.
50) Zhang Zhenmin Li Litao Yang Di, Trajectory Design of
Lunar Polar Probe, Chinese Space Science and Technology, 2002,
Vol. 22, No.3
Abstract: The advanced technique of phasing loop transfer orbit
is introduced, which is acceptable at present. According to the lunar
polar probe which main mission is to observe the surface of the moon,
and based on restriction and principle of trajectory scenarios, the
trajectory scenario is designed and analyzed, when the transfer
scenario
of Phasing loop transfer orbit is used. And some results of design are
given.
Comment: This is the first paper I have seen dealing with a
lunar
polar orbiter. A polar orbit is the best choice for lunar remote
sensing
for it ensures global coverage of the lunar surface.
51) Liu Fang Hu, et al., Intelligent Fuzzy Control for the
Five-Wheel Articulated Lunar Rover (FWALR), Journal of Shanghai
Jiaotong University 2002 Vol. 36 No.3 pp. 297-301
Abstract (my interpretation of a translation by Systran): This
paper proposes a fuzzy proportional variable control and uses this
concept to solve a complex three dimensional fuzzy path description
problem. Within this frame the problem of fuzzy control of a FWALR
(Five
Wheel Articulated Lunar Rover) operating in the reduced lunar gravity
and in a complex three dimensional terrain is solved using fuzzy
mathematics theory. This simulation indicates that the fuzzy control
system's effects are as predicted.
Comment:
52) Liu Lin, Liu Yingchun, Precise Orbit Determination for Lunar
Satellite, Acta Astronautica vol. 51, No. 1-9, pp. 501-506,
2002
Abstract: English abstract is Copyright of Elsevier Science B. V.
Comment: This paper (in English) was presented at the
International Astronautical Federation 2001 congress in Toulouse,
France. It is a rather technical paper on the orbit determination for a
satellite in lunar polar orbit. Includes reference to paper number 2.
53) Liu Lin, Liu Yingchun, A Method on the Precise
Orbit Determination for Lunar Satellite, Chinese Journal of
Space Science, 2002, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 249-255
Abstract: I have a translation by Systran of this
abstract but I am still trying to make some sense out of it.
Comment: This paper seems to be the Chinese version of paper no.
52.
54) Zhang Wei: Moon Rabbit - Small Lunar Probe Design;
Aerospace China, No. 9, 2002 (available here)
Comment: This paper reveals the detailed design of a small lunar
probe, designated Moon Rabbit after a traditional Chinese tale. This
330
kg probe will cost 30 million dollars and will be launched on a
geostationary transfer orbit from the Xichang space center. Insertion
into a lunar transfer orbit will be carried out on the following day
using the on board bipropellant engine. At the time of the third apogee
the probe will be inserted in a 100 to 200 km high lunar orbit where it
will split into two components. The first, apparently based on the
Double Star scientific satellites, will carry out an orbital mission,
using a CCD camera, an infrared camera, a radar altimeter and a
radiometer. The second will attempt a lunar landing. This lander,
braked
by a solid propellant engine, will carry only a camera and will test
optimal control algorithms discussed in such a length in Chinese
literature. Once on the surface the lander will release a 60 sq. meters
Chinese flag.
Communications with the two probes will be assured by an existing 12
meter antenna.
 |
The design of the orbiter is reminiscent of the Double Star scientific satellite (right, ESA Image) |
 |
 |
My
rendering of the Moon Rabbit probe approaching the Moon. (Image
Copyright Paolo Ulivi)
You can email me if you would like a publication-size copy. |
55) Luo
Xun-ji, Sun Zeng-qi: Research
on the Lunar Rover Simulation Platform; Journal
of System Simulation, 2002 Vol.14 No.9 pp. 1235-1238
Abstract: The lunar rover simulation platform discussed in this
paper provides a general virtual test-bed for lunar rover research and
development. The purpose of the simulation is to test the architecture,
control, and sensors of rover systems. This simulation platform
provides
a Terrain Builder to create lunar terrain modules, and an Environment
Editor to utilize these modules to create and
edit virtual lunar environment. Based upon the COM technology, this
simulation platform allows various rovers to join simulation, and, due
to the characteristics of COM, this system is a distributed simulation
system. The simulation platform and rover system can run on different
computers connected with network.
Comment: One more paper on lunar rovers. One of the authors is
Sun Zengqi, who have also authored the papers on large time delay
manipulators (abstract No. 1 and 10). An english version of this paper (A
Lunar Rover Simulation Platform) has been presented by the same
authors at the International Conference on Computational Intelligence,
Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 2001 in Singapore.
56) Yu Menglun: Research on a Chinese Lunar Probe Launcher;
Aerospace China, No. 11, 2002 (available here)
Comment: This paper reveals details on the Chinese lunar
launchers. Due to its injection accuracy, it appears that a CZ-3A based
launcher (i.e. a CZ-3A, -3B or -3C) would be the best choice. The paper
publishes the following payload characteristics for several Chinese
launhcers, to be compared with those I have analyzed in the comment to
paper No. 6
|
|
|
Payload to Lunar Surface [kg]
|
|
CZ-3A
|
1700
|
500
|
|
CZ-3B
|
3400
|
1250
|
|
CZ-3C
|
2400
|
800
|
|
CZ-5 "light"
|
4400
|
|
|
CZ-5 "medium"
|
8100
|
|
|
CZ-5 "heavy"
|
10600
|
Other than this, the paper reveals that two correction manoeuvres
would be carried out during the translunar cruise and that tracking of
the probe would require the use of domestic tracking stations, of the
Kiribati tracking station and of the three Yuanwang ("Long View")
tracking ships used for Shenzhou flight support.
58) Progress of Deep Space Exploration and
Chinese Deep Space Exploration Strategy, Aerospace China
2002, No. 12 pp. 28-32
Comment: This paper is mostly a survey of the present status of
planetary exploration worldwide. It does however include a few
interesting details about a possible future Chinese Mars mission
consisting of either an orbiter, lander or rover. While discussing
exploration of the inner planets, Venus and Mercury, it states that
China is not suited to carry out an independent exploration, but may
participate in international exploration.
59) Research on the Launch
Concept of Lunar Explorers, Aerospace China 2002, No. 12
pp.
33-34
Comment: This article briefly discusses the use of CZ-3A
launchers and the orbital design of a lunar orbiter. The same subject
is
dealt with in much greater depth in paper 66.
60) Ouyang Ziyan, Lunar Exploration and Exploitation in the
21st Century
Abstract: The
scientific values of Lunar exploration and exploitation are briefly
discussed in this paper,including the research of the formation of the
Earth-Moon system,geological aspects of the moon and the analysis of
resources on the moon.After scientists gaining enough knowledge on
lunar
resources,lunar bases can be established for the exploitation and
utitization for scientific research of outer space.The environment on
the moon is an ideal place for Astronomical Observatory.
Comment: This paper by Ouyang
Ziyan, reportedly the one of the top managers of the Chinese lunar
program is included in a Chinese Academy of Sciences book on Science
and
Technology in the 21st century.
61) Long Lehao Some
Thoughts on the Launch Vehicle Selection for China's Moon Exploration
Program, China
engineering science, 2002 Vol.4 No.9 pp.31-37
Abstract (my
interpretation of a translation by Systran): The development of space
science and development of deep space exploration will be one of the
astronautics development goals for our country in the near future
(around 2010), and lunar exploration will be the first step in the
development of deep space exploration. The choice of the suitable
rocket for the launch of a lunar probe (or orbiter) appears
particularly
important. The articles examines the basic requirements of the launch
vehicle for lunar exploration, the experience with lunar exploration
abroad and the status of the Long March rocket family, proposes
modifications to the candidate rocket and analyzes the main advantages
of the different orbits for lunar exploration. From the point of view
of
system engineering it is proposed to use the CZ-3A rocket to realize
hard (or soft) landing on the Moon, while it is suggested that a lunar
orbiter use the CZ-3B launcher.
Comment:
62) Sang Yumin, zhang Yue, Yu Jun Tao, Xiong Bin,
Innovative
Studies on Moon Exploration by Means of Virtual Reality Technology, Systems Engineering and Electronics, 2002 Vol.
24 No. 3 pp. 95-98
Abstract
(my interpretation of a translation by Systran): Proposes the use of
virtual reality technology to design a lunar exploration vehicle.
Discusses the use of virtual reality to carry out the ground simulation
of a lunar exploration vehicle, the simulation method, the production
of
a virtual lunar environment, the characteristics of the virtual lunar
terrain, examines the virtual lunar exploration vehicle, its dynamics
simulation and modelling and validation. In order to confirm the ground
simulation of the lunar exploration vehicle and the feasibility of a
virtual reality simulator which is proposed, a virtual lunar
environment
has been already built, the virtual lunar exploration vehicle has been
designed and the problem of lunar environment dynamics simulation has
been basically solved.
Comment:
xxxiii) Lin, M, Zhu, J. H., Mang J. H., Sun, Z. Q.: Tsinghua
Lunar Rover Prototype and its Hardware Design
Comment: Paper presented at the IEEE Tencon 02 conference in Beijing
2003
63) Liang Bing, Wang Wei, Wang Cunen: A Preliminary Concept for Future
Development of Lunar Rovers in China, Aerospace China 2003,
No. 1 pp. 29-33
Comment: This article starts
with a survey of international rover development. Then it discussed a
Chinese rover.
Five Chinese universities are working on the subject: the Beijing
control system engineering research institute, the Qinghua university,
the Harbin industrial university, the National Defense science and
technology university and the Chinese science and technology
university.
The requirements of a lunar rover are discussed, as well as an ideal
design. It is a six wheeled vehicle of a mass between 30 and 60 kg.
This
rover could carry an alpha-proton-X-ray spectrometer, a color camera, a
laser telemeter, an accelerometer and a sampling arm.
Virtual reality prototypes are being designed using Pro/Engineer CAD
software.
 |
Two images of a Chinese lunar orbiter based on the DFH-3 satellite bus. Image at left is from paper number 64, at right from China Central TV |
 |
65) Progress of Deep Space
Exploration
and Chinese Deep Space Exploration Strategy, International Space 2003,
No. 2
Comment: This article is the same as number 58.
66) Zhang, Lao Chinese
Deep Space Probe Technology Development Forecast , International Space 2003, No.
2
Comment: This article is the
same as number 64.
67) International deep space survey
technology
development present situation and tendencies, International
Space 2003, No. 2
Comment: This article is a
survey of international deep space probes, with little or no
information
regarding Chinese probes.
68) Long Lehao: National Lunar Launcher Configuration
Study, International Space 2003, No.2
Comment: This interesting
article reveals several aspects of the design of a Chinese lunar
orbiter, it orbit design and its launcher. The relative merits of a
probe reaching the Moon from Geostationary Transfer Orbit, using a
direct transfer orbit and using a phasing orbit approach are discussed.
The choice of the CZ-3A launcher lifting off from Xichang over the
CZ-2C/CTS is discussed, and payload data on several Chinese launchers
are included. The reuse of technology of existing satellites is
discussed. It is thus revealed that the lunar orbiter may reuse
technology from the FY-1, ZY-1 and DFH-3 satellites, as well as the
2,500 N N2O2-UDMH Shenzhou main engine.
The use of the GPS constellation for orbit control in proximity of the
Earth is briefly mentioned, this being discussed in paper number 34.
As an interesting aside, this article mentions the fact that the base
CZ-3 launcher is deemed "retired".
 |
An image of the Chinese-Brazilian CBERS-2
satellite, a.k.a. ZY-1B As mentioned in the above abstract, components from ZY-1 may be reused for the Chinese lunar probe (Image by Federico Ulivi) |
69) Liang Bing,
Wang Wei, Wang Cunen. A
Preliminary Concept for Future Development of Lunar Rovers in
China, International Space 2003, No.2
Comment: This article is the same as number 63.
 |
Two different lunar landing
gear designs
under study at the School of Mechatronic Engineering of the Harbin
Institute of Technology. Note the "Lunar Rover" shown in the image at right. |
72) China Initiates Study of Lunar Exploration Project; Aerospace China, April 2003, pp. 4-5
 |
The same issue of Missiles and Space
Vehicles that contains article number 71 also includes a paper on the
structural analysis of the new CZ-2EA heavy launcher from which these
images are taken |
 |
A line
drawing of the Chinese KAMADO lunar rover. (Image
Copyright Paolo Ulivi) You can email me if you would like a publication-size copy. |
 |
|
 |
 |
A computer graphics rendering of the
planetary rover described in the above paper. |
Popular magazines
Other papers concerning lunar flights have been published in
the Chinese popular aerospace press such as Aerospace China
and International Space.
a magazine published by the Chinese Academy of Space Technology.
Papers worth reading are:
India aims at the Moon; International Space, 2001, No. 12
The Whole World starts the Return to the Moon; International
Space, 2002, No. 3
These articles contain interesting details, including the suggestion
that the second decade of the new millennium will see a second race to
the Moon, this time between India and China.
Bibliography (other than the above papers)
Aviation Week & Space Technology,
April 10, 1978
Clark, Phillip S.: Review of the Chinese Space Programme, JBIS
Vol. 52, pp. 350-376, 1999
Coue', Philippe: Cosmonautes de Chine; Paris, L'Harmattan (in
French)
Coue', Philippe: Le Programme Lunaire Chinois; Espace Magazine,
No.1, pp. 22-25 (in French)
Flight International January 25, 1995
Flight International April 22, 1998
Harvey, Brian: Chinese Space Review: Recent Developments, 1998-2000,
JBIS Vol. 54, pp. 119-126, 2001
Harvey, Brian: Project 863; JBIS Vol. 55, pp. 222-225
Harvey, Brian: The Chinese Space Programme; Chichester,
Wiley-Praxis
Isakowitz, S. J.; Hopkins, J. P. Jr; Hopkins, J. B.: International
Reference Guide to Space Launch Systems (third ed., 1999); Reston,
AIAA
Jones M.: China's
First Lunar Steps Outlined In Sydney IAU Presentation (available
on-line)
Long March 2C User Manual (available on-line)
Mars-96: China and Russia Cooperate, Spaceflight, December 1992,
p. 393
Normile, D., Ding Yimin: Science
Emerges from Shadows of China's Space Program, Science Vol. 296
pp. 1788-1791, 2002
Tsinghua
displays prototype lunar rover, Beijing Youth (in Chinese)
Zhu Yilin, Development of Chinese Satellites under Prof. Tsien,
JBIS, Vol. 50, pp. 185-188, 1997
On-Line Resources
Aerospace China Internet Site
Chinainfo periodical
service (This site now requires password to browse both the
abstracts and the full papers. I have a password for abstracts, and I
am
looking for a full paper password...)
Chinese National Space Agency English Website
FAS Internet Site: China
and Solar System Exploration
Go Taikonaut! Internet
Site
International Space Internet
Site
Missiles and Space Vehicles Internet Site
(free on-line version of one of the main Chinese space journal)
People's Daily Science News English Internet
Site
Space Daily Internet Site
A Short Glossary Of Chinese Space Terms
Thanks to Chiew Lee Yih for his precious help
|
|
translation | pronunciation in: 1) Cantonese 2) Mandarin |
pronunciation tones |
 |
Moon (also Month) | yuet yue |
6 4 |
 |
Mars | foseng huoxing |
2-1 3-1 |
 |
Lunar Probe | yuetkau taamchaakhei yueqiu tanceqi |
6-4-3-1-3 4-2-4-4-4 |
 |
Lunar Probe (Module) | dangyuet chong dengyue cang |
1-6-1 1-4-1 |
 |
Interplanetary probe | haangsengjai taamchaakhe xingxingji tanceqi |
4-1-3-3-1-3 2-1-4-4-4-4 |
 |
Lunar Probe's orbit | yuetkau taamchaakhei gwaido yueqiu tanceqi guidao |
6-4-3-1-3-2-6 4-2-4-4-4-3-4 |
 |
Moon's orbit | yuetkau gwaido yueqiu guidao |
6-4-2-6 4-2-3-4 |
For questions, suggestions and comments you can email me
